Income Heterogeneity and the Environmental Kuznets Curve Turning Points: Evidence from Africa

The concept of environmental sustainability aims to achieve economic development while achieving a sustainable environment. inverted U-shape relationship between growth and quality, also called Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), describes the correlation carbon emissions. This study assesses role agriculture energy-related variables evaluating EKC threshold in 54 African economies, income groups, according World Bank categorization, including low income, lower-middle, upper-middle, high-income Africa. With 1990–2015 panel data, results are estimated using cointegration, Fully Modified Ordinary Least Square (FMOLS), granger causality tests. are: (1) validated hypothesis low-income, lower-, upper-middle-income economies. However, there is no evidence full panels. Furthermore, turning points group meagerly low, showing that Africa could be on at lower levels. (2) with CO2 found positive economy. has mitigation effect emissions lower-middle-income low-income sample. Also, renewable energy negatively correlated In contrast, non-renewable exerts all groups except